Literary context
The book of Jonah is not a prophecy, but an account of the prophet’s mission to Nineveh to announce its speedy destruction. It is concerned chiefly with Jonah’s own personal feelings and history in relation to this mission. Jonah prophesied at a time of crisis in the history both of Assyria and Israel. God’s
precious promise to Israel was fulfilled by Jeroboam (2 Kings 14:23), but since Israel did not repent (2 Kings 17:7-18), it rushed headlong into ruin. God’s threat against Nineveh, pronounced by the same prophet during a time of temporary decline, caused Nineveh to repent, so that God spared the city (Jonah 3:10;. Restored to power, Nineveh would eventually be used by God to destroy Israel.
The book of Jonah differs from most of the other minor prophets in several ways which provide a unique literary context for the book:
(1) The book of Jonah is mostly prose. With the exception of the prayer in Jonah 2, the NIV treats the entire book as prose. Other minor prophets have prose sections (cf. Hosea 1, 3; Joel 3:4–8; Amos 7:1–8:3), but they comprise a small portion of the whole.
(2) The book of Jonah is about the prophet rather than the words of the prophet. Aside from the short oracle in Jonah 3:4, the entire volume tells the story of a disobedient prophet unlike the other books of prophecy which record little about the prophet but concentrate on his words. Jonah is similar to the prophets Elijah and Elisha whose stories are told but few of their words are recorded (see 1 and 2 Kings).1
(3) The book of Jonah contains miraculous events. The rise and fall of the great storm, the arrival and departure of the fish, the overnight appearance and death of the vine are all events outside normal human experience. Similar miracles occur during the ministries of Elijah and Elisha (e.g., fire from heaven on Mt. Carmel in 1 Kgs 18:38 and a floating axe head in 2 Kgs 6:1–7) and Jesus (e.g., walking on water, healing the sick).
(4) The book of Jonah describes an unusual prophet. Nowhere in the book is Jonah called a prophet. Unlike other prophets, except perhaps for Jeremiah, Jonah is disobedient and argumentative. Jonah follows a different path than the compliant Hosea or willing Micah.
(5) The book of Jonah is well organized. Compared with Hosea or Amos, where scholars have not agreed on a clear outline, the flow of Jonah is self-evident. There are two calls of the prophet at the beginning of chapters one and three. Both of those chapters place Jonah in the presence of pagans (the sailors in ch. 1 and the people of Nineveh in ch. 3) who respond positively to the Lord.
The pagan leaders (the ship’s captain and the king of Nineveh) lead in that response. Chapters two and four contain prayers of the prophet, one from inside the fish, the other from outside the city. Both prayers reflect on the true nature of the Lord. In chapter one, the mode of transport is a ship, while it is a fish in chapter two. In chapter three, the destruction of the city is at concern while in chapter four it is the destruction of a vine. Other qualities of structure have been noted.2
(6) The book of Jonah ends with a question. Rather than wrapping up the theology of the book, the book leaves the reader to provide the final response. Inherent in the book is God’s positive answer, but the question is posed in such a way as to force the reader to choose between Jonah’s anger or the Lord’s compassion.
Allen notes, “A Jonah lurks in every Christian heart,” suggesting that the book takes on “smug prejudice, empty traditionalism, and exclusive solidarity.”3 Much like Jesus’ parables, the reader identifies with a character who later comes under criticism.
Response to these literary elements of Jonah has been varied. Some have wanted to regard the book as a parable.4 Parallels to the parable of the prodigal son (Luke 15) have been noted: an endangered party (Nineveh, younger son) is sought by a benevolent person (the Lord, the father) whose return angers another (Jonah, elder brother).
Others regard the book as historical, arguing that parables generally do not contain the miraculous events found in Jonah.5
Second Kings 14:25 treats the man, Jonah, as part of the history of North Israel. Jesus viewed the events in Jonah on a par with the events surrounding the visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon (Matt 12:39–42; Luke 11:29–32). Jesus saw in Jonah’s journey into the fish and his release a type of his own journey into death for three days prior to his resurrection.
Historical context – The book of Jonah has no historical superscription that permits easy dating of the book. The king of Nineveh is never named. There are few historical details in the book. The reference to Jonah in 2 Kings 14:25 provides the most helpful information about Jonah’s historical context:
(1) Date. Jonah lived in North Israel during the time of Jeroboam II (786–746 B.C.). If Jonah were an old man at the beginning of Jeroboam’s reign, his time period would be late ninth century; while if a young man at the end of Jeroboam’s life, he would have lived in the late eighth century.
(2) Place. Jonah was from Gath Hepher (2 Kgs 14:25), a city northeast of Nazareth (cf. Josh 19:13). If that location is correct, it would not be clear why he went to the port of Joppa rather than to the closer one at Dor.
(3) Economic Background. The General Introduction (p. 19) explains the prosperous economic times under Jeroboam II. According to 2 Kings 14:25, Jonah, in his preaching, declared that God had brought this blessing to North Israel. During the same general period, Hosea and Amos attacked North Israel because of the corruption associated with this affluence.
(4) Servant. Jonah is called God’s servant, a typical designation given to the prophets.
Several historical elements are helpful in understanding Jonah:
(1) Nineveh has a long history. Known from ancient times (Gen 10:11), Nineveh flourished as early as 2300 B.C., but enjoyed special prominence in the Neo-Assyrian period (900–612 B.C.) before it was destroyed by the Babylonians. Next to the Tigris River, the city had aqueducts and canals (cf. Nahum 2:6–8). It was the capital of Assyria under Sennecherib (704–681 B.C.; cf. Isa 37:37). Extensive archaeological work has revealed a library of 16,000 clay tablets largely from the time of Ashurbanipal (668–627 B.C.) which includes ancient epics on the creation of the world and an extensive flood.6
(2) Other prophets spoke against Assyria. Isaiah 14:24–27 is an oracle against Assyria while Nahum, like Jonah, deals specifically with Assyria. The Assyrians are behind events in 2 Kings 15–19; 1 Chronicles 5; 2 Chronicles 28–32; Isaiah 7–39; Hosea 5–14, and Zephaniah 2:13. The nation is mentioned in retrospect in Jeremiah 2:18, 36; 50:17–18; Lamentations 5:6; Ezekiel 31:3. Although Assyria appears in Genesis 10:11, the first threat of Assyria mentioned in Scripture comes in 2 Kings 15:19 and 1 Chronicles 5:6, about halfway through the eighth century B.C. Assyrian records mention incursions into the area at least a half century earlier. In the ninth century B.C., Assyria took North Israel’s neighbor, Syria, and made Jehu, king of Israel, pay tribute. After several weak Assyrian rulers in the time of Jeroboam II, Tiglath-Pileser (745 B.C.) invaded the west, beginning a half century of Assyrian involvement in North Israel’s affairs.7
(3) Current events behind the repentance of Nineveh. People are typically more open to spiritual renewal following a crisis than in the normal course of life (cf. Joel). Stuart suggests four crises that could have provided the historical context for Jonah’s preaching and Nineveh’s response:
(a) Solar eclipse. Cosmic events caused great concern in antiquity. A solar eclipse occurred in 763 B.C. during the reign of Assyrian king Assurdan III (773–756 B.C.).
(b) Weak Assyrian monarchs under pressure. Strong leaders endure minor upheavals better than weak ones. Assyrian kings of this period who might qualify as weak rulers include Shalmaneser IV (783–774 B.C.), Assurdan III (773–756 B.C.), and Assurnirari V (755–746 B.C.).
(c) Earthquake. Such upheavals always create chaos. According to Assyrian records, an earthquake occurred during the reign of one of the kings bearing the name Assurdan.
(d) Famine. Widespread hunger weakens nations and could be the backdrop to the fasting in Jonah. Assyrian records suggest several famines during the time of Assurdan III. While no definitive conclusion can be drawn, Stuart suggests that the crises that occurred during the rule of Assurdan make him a possible candidate for the king of Assyria who met the short-winded, but doom-predicting Israelite prophet, Jonah, and led his people in an appeal to Jonah’s God.8
Theological context
Although Jonah contains only one short oracle, the events of the story work to make several theological points. While the message of Hosea may be more explicit (“I desire mercy, not sacrifice,” 6:6), the points made in Jonah are more implicit and include the following:
(1) The Lord is not just the God of Israel. Jonah shows God’s power outside the land of Israel. He sends a storm and fish at sea and shows concern for Israel’s traditional enemies in Nineveh. The sailors pray to him and the king of Nineveh seeks his forgiveness. The book of Jonah is an argument against any who seek to keep God for themselves or assume that God visits only their church on Sunday.
(2) The Lord is the creator God. A theology of creation recurs in the book where God is the creator of all things (1:9; 4:10); the only one who can stop the storm (1:6, 14) and save Jonah (2:2, 6, 9, 10); the one on whom all life is dependent (4:7); he who controls the fish (1:17; 2:1, 10), the vine (4:6), the worm (4:7), and the east wind (4:8); and the one who is free to do anything he wants (4:10–11).9
(3) The Lord is a forgiving God. Jonah 4:2 states explicitly that he is “a God who relents from sending calamity” (cf. 3:10). His willingness to spare Nineveh infuriates the prophet whom God is also willing to spare. Jonah’s anger may stem from Assyria’s role as the enemy of Israel (cf. above on Historical Context). God is also willing to spare Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen 18:16–33). There is no sense in Jonah that God will overlook sin, but that in response to human repentance, forgiveness is possible.
Despite his lack of cooperation, Jonah celebrates this quality of God while in the fish: “Salvation comes from the Lord” (2:9). Jonah’s unwillingness to forgive the worm stands in contrast to God’s willingness to forgive Nineveh, just as the king in Jesus’ parable forgives one of his debtors who then, in turn, is unwilling to forgive one who owes him money (Matt 18:21–35).
(4) God is free to act. When his prophet disobeys, God can send a storm. When the sailors obey, he can take it away. When his prophet pouts, God can send an overnight plant. When his prophet celebrates the plant’s shade, the Lord can take it away. He can make a man survive in the stomach of a fish against all odds and accept the repentance of a wicked city, which was equally unlikely. He creates and destroys without answering to anyone and without following a pattern that his prophet or even his current-day followers are able to discern (cf. Deut 28:65–68). The Lord is not even obligated to follow through on his own promises. He ordered Jonah to warn that Nineveh would be destroyed in 40 days. God was not bound by that promise. Wolff notes that God has the first and last word in the book.10
(5) Obedience is found in the most unexpected places. Pagan sailors and an enemy city do not seem likely converts. God has more resistance from his prophet than from the wicked inhabitants of Nineveh. From the promise to Abram to bless all families of the earth (Gen 12:3) to Isaiah’s call for them to be a light to the nations (Isa 42:6; 49:6), God has been interested in all nations even making Israel a kingdom of priests (Exod 19:6) to serve the nations. The book of Jonah presents the rare case of non-Israelites coming to faith (see also individuals such as Rahab, Ruth, and Naaman). Jonah argues against any who decide that some person or some people will not respond. Faith appears in the most unlikely places.
Jesus refers to Jonah (cf. Matt 12:39–41; 16:4; Luke 11:29–32) as a foreshadowing of events in his own ministry. See commentaries on the NT for how Jesus treats the book of Jonah.[1]
Just about everyone knows the story of “Jonah and the whale.” This tale of a reluctant prophet and a large fish captures our imagination, but put yourself in Jonah’s place. Imagine being told to go preach on a street corner. Feeling uncomfortable? Now imagine being told to go preach on a street corner of a teeming urban center that is not only a huge seedbed of evil, but also the capital city of a powerful foreign enemy. Feeling more resistant?
This is just the situation Jonah faced, and he was uncomfortable. In this historical narrative of an incredible encounter between God, man, and nature, we see God’s great concern and love for sinners everywhere.[2]
If you could pick an ideal spot to live and raise your family, where would it be? The ideal for many Christians would be to live in a beautiful, remote area where they could live off the land and raise their kids apart from all the crime, pollution and problems that go along with crowded cities.
Many Christians dream about retiring in some beautiful spot where they can get away from people. We don’t want to be bothered with the problems of this messed up world! But I’d like to suggest that an isolationist mindset, as appealing as it may be, goes against the heart of God and removes God’s people from the very people God wants them to reach with His good news.
If you had been a Jew living in the ninth century B.C., you wouldn’t have wanted to live in or even visit the city of Nineveh. It was inhabited by a godless, wicked, violent people, the Assyrians. Archaeological inscriptions have been found in which Assyrian kings boast of their own cruelty, such as flaying their enemies and hanging their skin on the city walls.
In our text, when the king calls his people to repentance, he specifies their violence (3:8). Much of that violence was aimed at the surrounding nations, such as Israel, which Assyria tried to conquer and, about 125 years later, did conquer. It was to this violent, wicked enemy of Israel that God called the prophet Jonah. It would be like calling a Jew during World War II to go witness to Nazi Germany. I think we can understand why Jonah boarded the next ship headed in the opposite direction!
In 1893 Francis Thompson, a Roman Catholic poet, described God as the “Hound of Heaven”:
I fled Him, down the nights and down the days; I fled Him, down the arches of the years;
I fled Him, down the labyrinthian ways Of my own mind; and in the mist of tears I hid from Him, and under running laughter, Up vestaed hopes I sped And shot precipitated Adown Titanic glooms.1[3]
NIV New International Version, 1984
1 Note the parallels between Elijah and Jonah: both flee, have a dialogue with God, wish to die, and interact with the forces of nature. Cf. Hans Walter Wolff, Obadiah and Jonah (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1986), p. 77.
2 David A. Dorsey, The Literary Structure of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1999), pp. 290–297.
3 Leslie C. Allen, The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah and Micah, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976), p. 235.
4 Allen, The Books, p. 177–178.
5 Homer Hailey, A Commentary on the Minor Prophets (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1972), pp. 63–64.
6 Cf. s.v. “Nineveh,” ZPEB.
7 John Bright, A History of Israel, 4th ed. (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2000), pp. 253–266.
8 Douglas Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, Word Biblical Commentary (Waco: Word, 1987), pp. 491–492.
9 Cf. Elizabeth Achtemeier, Minor Prophets I, New International Biblical Commentary (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1996), p. 256; Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, p. 466.
10 Wolff, Obadiah and Jonah, p. 81.
[1] Harold Shank, Minor Prophets, The College Press NIV Commentary (Joplin, MO: College Press Pub. Co., 2001–), 326–331.
[2] Margaret Fromer and Sharrel Keyes, Jonah, Habakkuk, and Malachi: Living Responsibly (Workbook), Fisherman Guide Bible Book Study Workbook, n.d., Jon 1.
1 Francis Thompson, Poetical Works of Francis Thompson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 89–94.
[3] Max Lucado, A Gentle Thunder : Hearing God through the Storm (Dallas, TX: Word Pub., 1995), 17.
